The educational record of the province of Quebec, 1 décembre 1882, Décembre

[" ; THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD .OF THE PROVINCE OF QUEBEC.DECEMBER, 1882.~ Vou.II EXAMINATION PAPERS.SET To ACADEMIES AND NORMAL ScHoOLs, 1882.(N.B.In most of the papers only four questions might be answered.) Latin.1.Write the dative, singular and plural, of some noun in each of the five declensions.(10) 2.Decline the singular of bonus and melior, and the plural of tristis and niger.(10) 3.Decline together unus homo, and in plural idem bellum.(10) 4.Give the positive, comparative, and superlative of the Latin words signifying difficult, much, old, bad, hard.Also the comparative and superlative of prue, intra, prope.(10) .5.What are the different classes of pronouns ?Mention some of each class.Write out with meanings all you remember that are formed from qui or quis.(15) 6.Write\u2014with meanings\u2014the present and perfect of sum in all the moods.(10) | 7.Write out with meaningsall the tenses of rego in which the auxiliary verb is used,\u2014giving only 1st.per.sing.in indicative and subjunctive.(15) 8.Write out the principal (or characteristic) parts of do, sto, jubeo, video, capio, © Jfacio, vivo, scribo, tollo, scindo, mitto, vinco, vincio.(20) 9 Give the prepositions governing the ablative alone, with meanings.Which of them are also used as adverbs ?(15) AS 10.Give the Latin of where, thence, hither, elsewhere, never, to-day, now, not yet often, enough.(20) 11.In what respects does a verb agree with its nominative, an adjective with its substantive, and a relative with its antecedent ?Give an example of each.(15) 34 492 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.12.Give an example of the accusative and infinitive.How would you translate it into English?After what verbs is this construction used?(20) 13.Translate into Latin :\u2014¢ Virtue is dearer to me than glory.\u201d « Qur parents, to whom we owe so many good things, should be honoured in the highest degree.\u201d «On account of their virtue we often love men whom we have never seen,\u201d (20) 14.Translate into English :\u2014 « Fit protinus, hac re auditâ, ex castris Gallorum fuga.De mediâ nocte missus equitatus, novissimum agmen consequitur : magnus numerts capitur atque interficitur ; reliqui ex fugâ in civitates discedunt.\u201d a Or this :\u2014 « Quis esset tantus fructus in prosperis rebus, nisi haberes qui illis aeque ac tu ipse gauderet ?adversas vero ferre difficile esset, sine eo qui illas gravius etiam quam tu referret.\u201d (25) Greek.' 1.Decline xé62:c (in singular), cope (in dual), veoc a temple (in plural), vañc (throughout), veaviac (in sing.), mentioning declension and class to which each belongs.(10) 2.Decline éyañéc (in sing.), ÿdbe (in dual), morbe (in sing.), Tvyéc (in plur.) Give comparative and superlative of the three former.(10) 3.Give nom.and gen.sing.of ôde and oùroc, in all the genders.What is the English of oùroc 6 àvhp, aùrèc 6 âvip, 6 abros vip?(15) 4.Write the short paradigm ot the perfect active of any verb, and the same of the 1st aorist passive.(20) 5.Write (with name of tense, and meaning) the 1st per.sing.of all the tenses of indicative passive of rimrw.(20) 6.Write the different tenses of the infinitive active of any verb; and the participles in the different tenses passive of any verb.(20) 7.What are the different classes of contracted verbs?Take any one of them and write the 1st and 2nd per.sing.of all the contracted tenses active, besides the infin.mood and participle.(25) 8.Give the principal parts of yryvooke, lapBave, Exo, edplokw, Baivo, Baw, yiyvouar.(25) 9.What cases are governed by the following prepositions :\u2014amé, dud, ei, ék, év, émly ard, Tapé?and with what principal meanings?(25) Algebra.1.To 3bc \u2014 6d + 25\u20143y, add \u2014 3be + 2d + b\u2014¢; and from 5ay + 2x \u2014 Ta subtract 3xy \u2014 x 4 2 a.(10) 2.Multiply 8 + z%y + zy?+ y® by 2\u2014y; and divide 12a%z 4 4az?\u2014 16a by 4a.(10) 3.Divide z¢ \u2014 922 \u2014 6 ay \u2014 y2 by 22+ 3z+y.(15) 4.Reduce to a whole or mixed quantity 42?+ = \u2014 2 x A iply (84?\u2014 2°) + a \u20147 4 20 nd multiply 5 by 5 (20) RAT RR RY TATRA LRA a) EXAMINATION PAPERS, 3z+4 Tzx\u20143 x\u2014 16 5 1 (15) 6.Find the number, one-third of which, added to one-fourth, shall be equal to the number itself diminished by ten.(25) \u201c 22 + 4y \u2014 3z = 22 7.Solve dr 2y + bz = 18 (25) 6x + Ty \u2014 z= 63 5.Solve 8.Give a quadratic equation, and show the difference between pure and ad- fected quadratic equations.Write down the rule for solving each.(25) 9.There is a number consisting of 2 digits, which is equal to four times the sum of those digits; and if 9 be subtracted from twice the number, the-digits will be inverted.What is the number.(25) 10.Find 2 numbers, the first of which is to the second as the second is to 16 ; and the sum of the squares equal to 225.(25) Arithmetic.Add together 2, §, 3;, and {, and divide the result by 73.(10) 23205 and 25025 .6436 35035 \u2014 2.Reduce to their lowest terms (10) : L\u201415 3.Simplify ir and subtract 5; from Z - (15) ZUT 4.Divide 69.814 by -00521, and by 52100.(15) 5.Find the square root of -00694, Of what number is -2 the square root ?(20) 6.Find the simple interest on $6250 for 7} years at 3} per cent.(20) 7.If 21 men take 8 days to dig 20 acres, how many acres will 16 men dig in 12 days?(20) 8.Explain the difference between interest and discount, and find the true present worth of £2,674.6s.due 3 years hence at 42 per cent.(25) 9.The rate of a clock is -075 per cent.too fast.How much will it gain in a week?(25) 10.I have 2 square lots of land, the larger of which contains 270 acres ; the ratio of the smaller to the larger is as 5to6.What is the length of one side o the smaller?(25) 11.Three persons formed a partnership.À put in $170 dollars for 9 months, B $130 for 12 months, and C $150 for 8 months.They gained $286.What was the share of each ?(25) Geometry.1.Define a square and a semi-circle, also parallel straight lines ; and write out the first and third postulates.(10) : 2.Define a rhomboid, a gnomon, the angle of a segment, reciprocal figures.B+5+T7 +10).(25) 3.The angles which one straight line makes with another upon one side of it are either two right angles, or are together equal to two right angles, 4.Describe a parallelogram that shall be equal to a given triangle, and have one of its angles equal to a given rectilineal angle ?° 494 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.5.Divide a given straight line into two parts, so that the rectangle contained by the whole and one of the parts shall be equal to the square on the other part.(15) Or solved algebraically.(25) 8 2.Draw a straight line from a given point, either without or in the circumference, which shall touch a given circle.(15) v.Define the manner in which a figure is said to be described about another figure.Describe a circle about a given equilateral and equiangular pentagon.(25) : \u201c 8.Similar triangles are to one another in the duplicate ratio of their homologous sides.(25) English Grammar.1.Classify the letters of the alphabet according to their different powers.(10) 9.Define an Abstract Noun, and give examples of different kinds of Abstract Nouns.To what classes of Nouns belong the words\u2014 Army, Courage, Soldier, Cesar, Glory, April, Month 2 (15) 3.Give the definition of Adverb ; and the different classes of Adverbs with examples of each.(15) 4.What kinds of Pronouns are used as Adjectives ?Give examples.(10) 5.Write out the Subjunctive Mood of the verb \u201ctobe.\u201d To what class of verbs does it belong?(15.) 6.Give the 1st per.sin.of any intransitive verb in the different tenses of the indicative ; and the 3rd per.plur.of any transitive verb in all the tenses of the subjunctive.(25) 7.What are the necessary elements of a Sentence ?How may each of these be enlarged ?(20) ; 8.Parse every word in the following sentence: \u201c John carried them safely back to the shore.\u201d (15) 9.Analyse the following sentence, and state to what class it belongs :\u2014«I'll kill my horse, because I will not fly.\u201d (15) 10.Or this: \u2014 « A thousand men have broke their fast to-day who ne\u2019er shall dine, unless thou yield the crown?\u201d (20) 11.Parse fully each word italicised in the last sentence.(20) 12.Give the general analysis of the following lines : \u2014 « If you refuse it,\u2014as in love and zeal Loath to depose the child, your brother's son,\u2014 Yet know, whether you accept our suit or no, Your brother\u2019s son shall never reign our king : But we will plant some other in the throne, To the disgrace and downfall of your house.\u201d (25) 13.Write a complex sentence, whose subject shall be a clause, and which also contains an Adjectival and an Adverbial clause.(25) French.1.Write down the articles in their different forms, singular and plural, and after each write some noun with which it agrees.(15) ° EXAMINATION PAPERS.495 à.How is the feminine of adjectives usually formed ?Write the feminine of bon, beau, doux, neuf, faux, noir.(20) \u2019 3.Write out a list of the relative pronouns, with meanings.(20) 4.How are adjectives and adverbs generally compared ?Write in French:\u2014 Better, best,\u2014 Worse, worst.Also\u2014# He has more men than horses.\u201d «I've just as many as you.\u201d (20) 5.Write down the cardinal and ordinal numbers as far as 21, inclusive.(10) 8.What are the rules for expressing the negative in French ?Write in French \u201c I have not the horse.\u201d\u2014¢ He has nothing.\u2019\u201d\u201d\u2014 Are you not sick 7\u201d «I am neither cold nor hot.\u201d (20) 7.Write out the Imperative Mood, and 3rd per.sin.and plur.of the subjunctive tenses, of any verb of the second conjugation, active.(25) 8.How is the Passive formed?Give the 1st.per.sing.and plur.of present and pluperfect tenses of the Indicative and Subjunctive of any verb of the 3rd conjugation, passive.(25) 9.Give examples of the use of (a) Reflexive (3) Impersonal Verbs.(25) 10.Translate into French :\u2014« Give me the book.It is mine.I lost it here yester\u2019ay.I have some money, but I have no bread.I am hungry and thirsty.\u201d (15) 11.Translate into French three of the following sentences : (1) \u201c I must rise at 5 to-morrow, or even at half-past four.\u201d (2) \u201c He never fails to do it every day.\u201d (3) I have been here more than an hour.(4) I forgive you, because I hope you will do better for the future.(25) 12.Translate into English : \u201c Ma mère n\u2019instruisait que mon cœur et ne formait que mes sentiments.Le vieux curé d\u2019un village voisin tenait une petite école pour les enfants de quelques paysans aisés.On m'y envoyait le matin.Je portais de plus sous mon dos, comme les autres, un petit fagot de bois pour alimenter le feu du pauvre curé.\u201d (25) ) .German.1.Give the equivalents in English letters of the German j, r, ¢, w, v\u2014with instances ; and also instances of variation from the ordinary rule.(10) 2.Write out, with meanings, 3rd pers.sing.of all the indicative tenses (active) of the verb « haben.\u201d (15) .3.Write out, 1st per.sing.of conjunctive and conditional moods passive of any strong verb.(15) 4.Give some of the rules for determining the gender of nouns,\u2014with examples.(10) 5.How are the strong and weak declensions distinguished ?Give an example of each.Write out a paradigm of any noun of the strong declension, with the defin ite article.(15) 6.Write out, in German, the declension of \u201cthis green field,\u201d in the singular, that of \u201c my new song\u201d in the plural.(15) 7.Decline in sing.and plur.the personal pronoun of the 2nd per.and the fem.of the 3rd pers.(15) NRT PITRE IE TY Pl ES be) à PS A A PRET PR ER: 19 CEROART BH PA 496 THE EDUCATIONAL RÉCORD.8.Give a list of Demonstrative Pronouns, with meanings.(15) 9.Translate into German : \u201cthe house is very small.Have you lost your pen?I have not seen the king.No one has taken your pen.\u201d (15) 10.Translate into German : \u201c Can you tell us where he is gone ?\u201d « I have much to do.\u201d « We shall dine at 2 o'clock.\u201d \u201cI hope to see you soon again.\u201d \u201cI want to speak to you.\u201d «We want some more water.\u201d (20) 11.Translate the following :\u2014 Das Madchen aus der Fremde.IL In einem 'Thale bei armen Hirten Erschien mit jedem jungen Jahr Sobald die ersten Lerchen sewhirrten, Ein Madchen schon und wunderbar.11.Sie war nicht in dem Thal geboren, Man wusste nicht, woher sie kam ; Und schnell war ihre Spur verloren, Sobald das Madchen Abschied nahm.(25) Sacred History.1.What were the first and the last Plagues of Egypt?Mention some of the circumstances attending the departure of Israel out of Egypt.(20) 2.In what part of the Bible are the Ten Commandments found ?In what manner were they given, and to whom ?(10) 3.Name the first three kings of Israel, and a few of the circumstances connected with the appointment of two of them.(15) 4.How did Mcses displease God ?How was he punished ?(15) 5.What was God\u2019s promise to Abraham ?How was it fulfilled ?(15) 6.Who were John the Baptist\u2019s parents?What was his work ?What were the terms of his message ?(15) 7.What are the three instances of our Saviour\u2019s raising the dead?(25) 8.Give the names of the 12 Apostles.Which of thém were writers of books in the New Testament, and of which books ?(25) 9.How many Herods are spoken of in the New Testament.Mention some incident concerning each.(20) 10.Who was the first Christian Martyr ?Give a short account of his death.(20) | 11.What were the principal cities visited by St Paul in his missionary journeys?Give some incidents having reference to each.(25) English History.1.What do we know about Britain before the arrival of Julius Caesar ?(10) 2.Give a general sketch of the doings of the Romans in Britain.(20) 3.Give the date of the Saxon (or English) arrival, and write down what you know of the origin of the Saxons, and the circumstances which led to their landing in Britain.(15) - 4.Write a short account of the reign of Canut (or Canute.) (25) EXAMINATION PAPERS.49% 5.Give a list of principal events in the reign of any one of the following kings :\u2014 William I., John, Edward III.(20) 6.State the grounds on which the Houses of York and Lancaster respectively based their claims to the Crown.What was the final settlement and its date?(25) \u2019 7, Write down a very few words descriptive of any five of the following per- sons\u2014not exceeding three lines for each :\u2014Alban, Agricola, J.Cade, Dunstan Godwin, Hotspur, Simon de Montfort, Wallace.(15) 8.Give in the same manner as above, a description of five of the following : \u2014 Chatham, Fairfax, Havelock, Jeffreys, Latimer, Raleigh, Strafford.(20) 9.State in very few words the meaning of any six of the following terms :\u2014 Cabal, Danegelt, Domesday Book, Interdict, Lollard, Reform Bill, Ship-money, \u201c Six Articles.\u201d (20) .( 10.Write your idea of the character Oliver Cromwell, giving reasons for your conclusions.(25) 11.Write a short life of Wyclif, of Cardinal Wolsey, or the Duke of Marl- borough\u2014only one ofthe three.(20) 12.Give a short account of the circumstances which led to the Independence of the United States,\u2014with date and reign.(25) 13.Whose son was James I, and how was he connected with the old royal line of England?(25) Canadian History.14.Give some of account of any one of Champlain\u2019s expeditions against the Indians.What was the date of his death ?(25) 15.Briefly describe the last siege at Quebec, with events immediately preceding and following it.(25) 16.Write a short description of the Rebellion of 1837.(25) 17.What have been the most remarkable events of Canadian history since the confederation of the provinces ?(25) Geography.1.What is meant by the terms Great and Small Circle respectively ?Name and define the principal circles on the terrestrial globe, stating whether great or small.(25) 2.Name the seven largest cities in the world in the order of their size.(10) 3.Name in order the countries bordering on the Mediterranean,and its branch seas, with their capitals; also the principal rivers flowing into those waters.(25) 4.If you wished to travel round the world by the most direct route, briefly describe the course you would take, mentioning the method of locomotion for the different portions of the journey, and naming the chief stopping-places.(25) 5.Give the names and situations of the most remarkable peninsulas of the world.(10) 6.Name in order those of the United States which border on British America, and the great Lakes, with their capitals.(25) 498 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.7.Write a short description of the Province of Quebec, giving its situation, cities, towns, rivers, boundaries.(25) 8.Describe the principal Rivers of the North-west and Manitoba, with the waters into which they flow, and the chief lakes on the course of each.(15) 9.Give the names and situations of the seas which border che continent of Asia.(15) 10.What are the principal sea-ports of Great Britain ?Describe the situation of each.(25) 11.Give a short account of the Gulf Stream.(25) i , Natural Science.\u201c 1.Explain the terms inertia, gravitation, cohesion, elasticity, momentum.Give the rule for finding momentum.(15) 2.In what manner is the weight of bodies affected by distance from the earth's surface ?How does the same cause produce difference in weight on different parts of the earth's surface itself.(15) 3.What are the laws for the force of gravity?(15) 4, What are the different kinds of pulleys 7?What is the law of moveable pulleys?(15, ) 5.What is specific gravity 7 What substance is taken as the standard of specific gravity ?Give such instances as you remember of the specific gravity of other substances?(15) 6.Describe a barometer or an air pump.(15) 7.State the chemical composition of water.Give the weight of a cubic inch of water, and its degree of compressibility.Give the difference in bulk between a certain volume of steam, and the volume of water which produces it.(20) 8.In what respect does water form an exception to the general laws with respect to expansion ?At what degree of temperature does this take place ?(20) 9.What process causes the heat of fire and of animal bodies respectively ?5) 10.What are angles of incidence and of reflection, respectively 7 (15) 11.Explain the phenomenon of refraction, giving examples.Explain the causes which produce the rainbow.(20) 12.Describe the structure of any flower, showing the functions of its principal parts, and giving its genus, order, ge.(25) 13.In what different forms does carbon exist in a free state?How may its existence be proved in all these?(25) 14.Explain the terms acid, alkali, salt.15.What is meant by oxidization 2 Give examples.(20) 16.Describe the process of circulation of the blood, giving some account of the organs and principal vessels concerned in it.In what way is this process connected with that of respiration 2 (25) © 17.In-what way does the action of the earth\u2019s internal heat tend to counteract the general lowering of level caused by the destructive action of air, rain, \u2019 MAXIMS OF EDUCATIONISTS.499 frosts, rivers, &c.?Under what circumstances were hills and valleys, for the most part, formed?(25) 18.Describe an electrical machine, or a galvanic battery.(25) 19.Explain the principle of the electric telegraph, and give a short description of the apparatus by which it is worked.(25 to 50) 20 Give an account of the manner in which the changes of the seasons are produced.(209 Book-keeping.1.Explain the theory of Double Entry.(25) 2.Explain the terms Sundries, Journalizing, Balancing, Posting, Averaging of Accounts ; also the terms Debtor and Creditor, stating what kinds of entries are placed under these two latter heads respectively.(25) 4.I begin business with $5,000, viz: $1,500 cash, $1,500 borrowed from J.Smith for two years at 6 per cent.; and 2 Bills Receivable on R.Gay, & C.Jones, of $1,000 each, payable at the Bank of Montreal, 1st of November, 1882.I purchased goods from D.Sims to the amount of $3,000, for which I paid $2,000 cash, and gave my note at three months for $1000.Sold to J.Ralph, goods for $1,500, received his note at 6 months.Make the necessary entries in the different books.(50) SOME MAXIMS OF EDUCATIONISTS.From Oscar Browning's Educational Theories.\u201cThe child must learn to distinguish knowing from thinking or believing.\u201d\u2019\u2014 Kant.\u201c At home one can learn only what is taught himself, at school even what is taught others.\u201d \u2014Quintilian.\u201c Give no rules until you have given the matter, the author, and the language.Rules without matter confuse the understanding.\u201d\u2019\u2014 Ratich.\u201c Ask much, retain what you are told, teach what you have retained.A man who teaches another teaches himself.\u201d\u2014 Comenius.«Tis not a soul, *tis not a body, that we are training up, but a man, and we ought not to divide him.\u201d \u2014Montaigne.\u201cThe greater part of the errors of mankind arise rather from reasoning on false principles than from reasoning badly on the principles which they adopt.\u201d \u2014Arnauld.\u201cThere are three forces which educate a man\u2014nature, men, \u2018and things; of these, only the second is in our power.\u201d\u2014 Rousseau THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.THE OBJECT LESSON.By Miss S.F.Sroan, McG MopeL ScHOOL.Read before the Teachers\u2019 Convention, Sherbrooke, July, 1882.It was proposed some time ago to give practical lessons bearing on subjects under discussion, or on papers whigh had been read at the Convention.In accordance with this plan I was asked to give an Object Lesson, and, as the giving of a simple lesson did mot seem so formidable an undertaking as writing a paper, I consented to do-so.Dr.Robins, in his paper on Object Lessons, read at the Convention in 1879, has taken up the subject thoroughly, giving the history of the development, the purpose and end to be attained, the definition, scheme, and some examples of Objeet Lessons; and having studied it carefully and received help from it in my own work, I should recommend all teachers to put the suggestions contained therein into practice in giving their lessons.My lesson is only intended as a help to the few who have never heard one given, and I hope they will bear with me in first referring to the work done in the Primary School in which I teach.My excuse for doing so is that I have found that a talk with other teachers on their work has often been of use to me in mine.We have three grades of children.The lowest, a class of twenty at the average age of six, have lessons in form and color, such as are beautifully set forth in Calkin\u2019s \u201cObject Teaching.\u201d A story is often read, or told, them, which they are expected to repeat some other day when we have a conversational lesson, and very simple object lessons, considered principally for their form, color, materials, parts and uses.They are allowed to mention any quality they may notice, using their own words to express it rather than the namé of the quality.For instance, in giving a lesson on \u2018a pane of glass, I should expect them to say that they could see through it, but not to use the word transparent.They thus get ideas before words.With the next grade of children objects are presented with a view to learning the qualities and their names.Great care is taken, that they may understand perfectly the idea before learning the name, and that very few qualities are considered at first, to prevent confusion of ideas.For example, the quality of inflammability is to be learnt; some inflammable object is taken, THE OBJECT LESSON.501 that quality is especially dwelt upon, other objects of like nature are produced, and they experiment on them by holding them in the flame of a candle.Then the word inflammable is given, and, with flame to hang it on, they are not likely to forget it.And so with other qualities, let them experiment and find out the qualities themselves.This will give them a chance to do something, which all children enjoy, and they will remember what they learn.In this grade they are expected to use the proper words for their ideas, expressing in one word what would otherwise require many, eg., the word opaque, to express that the material of the object cannot be seen through, and that it does not let light pass through it.The pupils of the third grade, averaging nine years of age, are ready for more advanced lessons, the relation of things to one another, comparing objects together, and their classification.1 begin this year with the children by finding out the differences between a plant and a stone, next by comparing a plant and an animal together.Another day we classify a number of substances placed on the table into the three kingdoms.Three of the children are directed to arrange these on three separate chairs, each assigned to a different kingdom.The rest of the children sit in judgment, and when a mistake is made, the one who notices it has the privilege of choosing.At another time the names of sixty substances are wrilten on the board, and the children have several slate exercises, arranging them into the classes named, as, soluble and insoluble, native and foreign, natural, prepared and manufactured, &e.They are afterwards required to find other classes themselves.Then we classify birds, first letting them do so themselves.They suggest large and small, or classification according to plumage or country; but these divisions cross one another and have no reference to the life and habits of the birds, hence they are led to choose\u2014perching birds, swimming, wading, generally finding the appropriate name, &c., for the class themselves.Soon we get the seven classes, using seven representative picture cards, comparing each new class with the former, noticing resemblances and differences, eliciting reasons for the letter as adapted to the wants of the bird.Finally we classify the remaining pictured birds (over twenty), comparing each with the representative card.This classification forms several interesting object lessons.A talk about the whale on 502 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.exhibition in the city led to the formation of a class of \u201cThings found in the sea,\u201d the children brought many objects of interest, on which we had lessons, eg., sponge, coral, seaweed, sea salt, starfish and shells.Another plan we have tried is to allow them to observe an object one day, drawing from it facts as to form, color, parts, arrangement, and so on.The next day I give them à \u201c Why \u201d lesson, asking questions on the board as to reasons of form, &c.After they have had time to think and write their supposed reasons, individuals are called upon to read them ; each answer is considered by the class, assented to or corrected, by them or the teacher.As an example, let a piece of honey-comb be taken as a subject to excite observation; the next day while they are still interested in it, ask, \u201c Why are the cells six-sided ?\u201cWhy sealed?\u2019 \u2018 Why not one large cell instead of many small?\u201d ¢ Why are the edges thicker than sides?\u2019 ¢ Why are the ranges separated by half an inch?\u201d &c.Sometimes, in beginning a lesson, the children are allowed to guess what we are to talk about, finding out by the sense, or senses, they are permitted to use.For instance, a piece of wax wrapped in paper is handed round.One, feeling it, tells the others it is a hard lump; another, pressing his nail in, says the material is soft; another is shown the color; another by smelling it may discover what it is.As each quality is found it is written on the board, and their guesses must be in accordance with these qualities.Occasionally an object is taken which looks like other objects as alum.They guess rocksalt, washing soda, alum, candy, camphor, &ec.These names are written on the board ; each one who suggested an object is asked to tell his reason, giving some peculiarity in taste, smell, or feeling, peculiar to that object, and then trying whether the alum possesses that property.In this way they learn the lesson that they must not always judge by the appearance alone.It is necessary to have a certain general plan for lessons for the purpose of training the children to think in an orderly manner, and when the heads of a lesson are written on the board they should be required to concentrate their thoughts on each head, but to prevent this from losing its interest by becoming monotonous, the plan is frequently varied; rules and regulations, set forms and deductions, are laid aside, and they are allowed conversational lessons.With children in the lower grade, one remark suggests another; they sometimes wander far from THE OBJECT LESSON.503 the subject (especially if it happens to be a whale, an elephant, a monkey, or a wild animal), to be brought back again by a reminder from the teacher.The next day this may be systematized in a review lesson.The subject I have chosen for my lesson is wheat, on account of its being a common though wonderful and beautiful object.OUTLINES OF A LESSON ON WHEAT.I.Parts.\u2014Roots, stem, leaves, blossoms, ear or head.IT.Roors.\u2014Color, brown and white.Form, hairlike rootlets.Manner of Growing, spreading.Use (1), to fix the plant to the ground.(2), to absorb nourishment for it.An Annual\u2014show by drawing or specimens the germination of the seed.III.Srem\u2014Green or yellow, cylindrical, long, jointed, hollow, partitioned (let them find out the last by trying to ?draw air through the stem ; explain that 2, 4, 5 and 6 make the stem stronger), flexible, elastic (these with a view to wind; draw from pupils the necessity for both qualities), grows in an upright position (why ?) covered with a flinty varnish (why ?), the use to carry sap and to support the leaves; when cut it is called straw.) 1V.Leaves.\u2014Green, long, tapering to point, two flat faces, grow upwards and outwards from joints, broad stalk rolled round the stem, alternate.Parts (compare with parts of the hand), skeleton, green pulp, sap and skin, bare, point margin and faces, margin entire, veins parallel.Use, to take in air through the breathing pores and prepare the sap to nourish the plant.V.Brossoms.\u2014Small scales, green become yellow, enclose a one-seeded fruit called a grain, use to protect the seed.VI.Ear \u2014Consisting of two parts: (1), fibrous stalk, and (2) grain.1st.Stalk, tough, flexible, elastic.Its use to hold grains and carry sap to them, 504 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.2nd.Grain, consisting of two parts: the \u201chusk,\u201d dry, thin, light, yellow (when ripe); the \u201ckernel,\u201d white, opaque, solid, composed of the germ of the plant and food for it.This should be long enough to form two or more lessons given to a class at the average age of nine, who have had lessons on ° form and names of qualities, nearly all the items might be elicited from them.Again, the whole plant might be taken up.THE WHOLE PLANT.I.Faminy.\u2014 Different families of people as of plants, by referring to leaves they will be able to name it, grass family.Ask names of different species, show specimens.The family is large; different kinds and sizes from creeping grasses to giant sugar-cases, 2,000 different kinds.Draw out their ideas to enable them to realize the number by referring to 10, 100, &e.e 11.UsEs ro MAN \u2014Show them specimens of the grain in different conditions ; in the ear, grain husked.cracked \u2018 wheat, Graham flour, bran, flour (it will add to the interest to hear what they suppose each specimen is.) Show specimens of the following, asking why they are shown in connection with the subject :\u2014Bread, biscuit, starch, flour, straw, paper, macaroni.Ill.Werre Grown ?\u2014Note particularly our own Manitoba wheat-fields, not found wild, cultivated from earliest \\ times, why ?bread, \u201c staff of life\u201d Use of staff in a journey ?bread necessary food through journey of life.IV.Season.\u2014 Time of sowing, fall and spring.Time of reaping, summer and autumn.Manner, refer to labor-saving machines.V.AssocIATIONS.\u2014\u201c Sowing and reaping.\u201d Our life compared to the different seasons of the year; that they may get an idea of your meaning, refer to the winter of old age, the hair whitened with its snows ; senses numbed with its frosts.Spring, the beginning of growth.What season is a child's life like?Spring, the sowing time.What is sown ?Little seeds of habit; let them be good seeds, that they may THE ORJECT LESSON.505 q become firmly rooted into character; sow well, little grains of knowledge each day, so as to reap golden grain of happiness and success in after life.A wheat field, the days of life compared to one, orderly rows of wheat, ears alike; plants all busy turning the air, bright sunshine, and rain into useful wheat, growing up daily into the light.What busy days should we liken to wheat?School days.How beautiful to look back upon a whole field of wheat, where each plant has made good use of its time, filling up the ears with « wholesome grain and pure\u201d; no vacant spots where we have neglected to sow our seeds, no blackened, patches of mildewed wheat.Teachers, too, have a wheat-field in which they have sown seed.Can you tell what it is?Is all the year made up of school days?We see something else besides the wheat-plants growing up until \u201cthey laugh out atop \u201d into wild flowers.What days are they like?They have been called \u201cholidays of the wheat-fields\u201d\u2014these daisies and buttercups that dance in the wind, nod their bright heads, and seem to tell us to be happy also.Would you like to spend all your time as holidays?A field of wild flowers alone is a field of weeds.Many other lessons might be drawn from wheat, but after all the learning we cannot know everything even about a plant of wheat and its wonders.I will close with a little verse that some has written :\u2014 « Flower in the crannied wall, I pluck you out of the crannies ; Hold you here, root and all, in my hand, Little flower\u2014but if I could understand What you are, root and all, and all in all, I should know what God and man is.\u201d Dr.Abel's Theory of the Growth of Language \u2014Taking Old Egyptian as his text, he argues that language began with the con fused and indistinct, with words that denoted many things, and were at once homonyms and synonyms.Gradually, as the mind of man developed, his ideas, and therewith the words which expressed them, became clearer; homonyms and synonyms tended to disappear; and grammar and vocabulary alike grew definite \u2018and exact.\u2014 The Academy. 506 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.THE TEACHING OF FRACTIONS.By F, C.Haney, Head Master, Dorchester Street School, Montreal.I wish to make my motives and a\u2019°ms in writing this paper clear at the beginning.I think that a great many teachers at first have no particular system of doing their work, especially in teaching fractions until they learn by trial, experiment, and often by failure, some method which they use afterwards.And I am not prepared to deny that a method of teaching reached in this way may be a good one, and produce first class results.But what, I ask, are the effects on those on whom the experiments, the trials and the failures have been made ?I know that very often it is not the fault of these young teachers that they do not know how to teach better at first setting out, but it reflects great credit on those who, starting without any instruction in teaching as an art, still have the ability and determination to become good teachers.They are not to be blamed, for they have not perhaps seen anything better than they themselves are doing.Perhaps they were educated at an academy, where the teacher will ask them to look round the room and see how many nouns they can find, or will tell them that a man having twenty pounds can pay out of it twenty-one pounds, three shillings and sixpence.Or perhaps they have received their education in town or city, and if so they will most likely have been crammed as badly as if they had been taught in\u2014Ontario.It is not to be wondered at here in the Province of Quebec, where so few teachers receive a Normal School training and those who do benefit so little by it, that a great deal of bad teaching is done.As there are likely to be some here who are just starting on that very useful path in life, the training of the young idea with the aid of book and rod to shoot upward to the light, and who have not yet formed any definite plan of teaching fractions, I thought it would not be altogether out of place to give a few practical suggestions by which they might be guided in forming such a plan.My motive is not to disturb those who are following a system that works well, but simply to speak to those who are commencing the profession who have generally very hazy notions as to how much and how they can teach an average class.The first thing in teaching fractions is to enable your class to get a distinct idea of what a fraction is, to learn the thing itself not its sign, THE TEACHING OF FRACTIONS.507 This can only be done, in my opinion, by actual experiment, that is by taking some such object as a piece of paper and dividing it before them.Divide your object into two parts and many will be able to tell you that each of these is called a half, as it is a fraction they are practically acquainted with.Draw their attention to the fact that they are equal.For this reason, if there are boys in the class, do not use an apple, as the half that a boy generally gives his little sister is the core.You can then further divide the object, but still try to keep clearly before them that each piece is equal to every other piece.Then you can tell them that one of these is called a fraction, and you can tell them after that that two or more of them, as long as you have not taken all, are also fractions.Next I think you may venture to give them the definition.It will not do them any injury, even if they do not understand it.They know what a fraction is and that is all you want.If the foregoing has been carefully done the class will be able to give a better definition of a fraction than can be found in three-fourths of the books.If you give them a definition give them this or one that means the same thing,\u2014 A fraction is a part of anything\u201d When you have taught them what a fraction is you can proceed to show them how you write it in figures.This I think is the natural plan.À child has understood the whole significance of the thing Pa long before he is taught to recognize the word in a book or to write it with pen or pencil.You would think it strange, if it were possible Lo do it, if you saw any one teaching her child the word pa and, when he knew it at sight and could write it, introducing that very useful member of the family to the child\u2019s notice and telling him that was the thing that pa was the name for and \u201c Johnny you had better remember or I'll whip you.\u201d Of course we all admit that children can be taught to add, subtract, multiply and divide, and perform other operations with fractions without having the slightest idea what they are doing it for.But what preparation is such an education for a life of work and thought, especially in this age when a man needs all his faculties about him to prevent his being merely a piece of driftwood on the tides that ebb and flow in the great ocean of time.The usual way of teaching fractions is to cause the child to learn the different kinds of fractions at the very gutset.This I have been more and more convinced is not the best way or even a good way, for it is the unnatural way of teaching a 35 HRS RTI TC ITEC Era a! 508 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.child words instead of things, definitions instead of realities.My opinion is that, when a boy has learned by actual contact what proper fractions are, and how to express them by their appropriate symbols, he should be taught to perform every operation with them that he has learned with whole numbers.I would do this for several reasons ; they are the simplest and easiest to understand, they are most used in actual life, and they are the best introduction to the more complex forms.Probably this would be a little awkward where a certain portion of a book is laid down for a class to go over and there can be little or no deviation from the prescribed path, but even in such a case it would pay in the end.I know too that the arithmetics in use are to a certain extent responsible for some of the poor teaching done.Take the definition of a proper fraction that you will see in most of them.\u201cA proper fraction is a fraction whose numerator is less than its denominator.\u201d Let us look a moment at this definition.I need not tell this audience, I presume, that the denominator is the name of the fraction, that if we say three-fourths, fourths is the name of the thing and the three the number of them, that it is the same kind of expression as three apples.How absurd you would think it for a person to say that the three is less than the apples: But I suppose to the end of the world arithmetic will be taught in this way, and men will be found mad enough to write arith- metics with just such definitions'in them, and leave said definitions without a word of explanation for the poor teacher to waste her young enthusiasm upon.My definition would be \u201ca proper fraction is any fraction that is less than the whole thing.\u201d But if any should not see any force in what I have said and will still say, with a look of surprise beaming from their critical orbs, «\u201c But the pumerator is less than the denominator,\u201d\u2019\u2014to such I would beg leave to extend my heartfelt sympathy.One of the difficulties, that teachers meet with in teaching addition of fractions, is that children.will often forget that they ought to reduce the fractions to equivalent fractions having a common denominator.They will presist in adding them as they would whole numbers, and the teacher wonders if ever anyone else was plagued with such stupid children little thinking that is the cry sent up from many a breaking heart, until it becomag so intolerable that, although they love their work and are devoted to their profession, they frequently sacrifice all their bright hopes\u2014and get married.: : = a \u2014 THE TEACHING OF FRACTIONS.509 Now I think, if the nature of a fraction had been well understood by the pupil, a great deal of this trouble would vanish.If they understood thoroughly that the denominators were the names of the things they were adding, they would see the nonsense quickly enough of attempting to add names.If you cannot get them to see it in any other way, write your denominators in letters instead of figures and they will see it, if nature ever intended they should.This is supposing that, when they were being taught addition of integers, they learned that they could not add nuts to apples and have marbles for an answer.If they were not, it would save time for the teacher to go back with them and commence over again.There was a time in this province, when many teachers did not know why they reduced fractions to a common denominator before adding, but that time will pass away.But I am inclined to think that still many teachers do not think it necessary to teach the children anything about it, thinking 1 suppose such knowledge too wonderful for them.Perhaps too some of the fault may be in their surroundings.How many have had to deplore the opposition of ignorant trustees or Commissioners to \u201c new-fangled nonsense\u201d as these great men call any attempt to introduce a better state of things.And a great deal of this will always occur, where pecple will appoint for such places men who can neither read nor write, men who regard the teacher in the light of an ox, a thing to get the greatest possible amount of work from at the smallest possible cost, men who think all teachers should be cripples or lunatics.But if teachers will teach in the way I have pointed out, they will find it labour well invested, for all children, if not crammed, will welcome eagerly anything like anew idea.Get them tounderstand what they are doing, and you will seldom be troubled with having them add fractions like whole numbers.Another mistake that we very often make is that we imagine children are able to grasp numbers intuitively because we think we are doing so.We require too much from children very often.If we could have it impressed on us more strongly than it is, that the mind can intuitively grasp but one object at a time, we should be saved many mistakes and many failures.Especially in teaching arithmetic, would a knowledge of this mental law be useful.We would then reason from and fo one only, and this should begin with concrete one.I am confident that we only intuitively grasp 510 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.the idea of one object, and then another object, and that, by other powers of the mind, we associate them and thus get the idea of two ; that any thing but one involvés a process of abstraction, and of course, the difficulties of the process increase with the number of the objects, and also with the decrease in the extent of acquaintance our minds may have had of the process.It cannot then be expected that a child should as readily grasp the relations of numbers as a grown person, who has had some training in these things.Another thing we forget (that I may mention here) is that with the majority of men their knowledge of numbers will depend largely on their memories, and for this reason we have to repeat very often.This reasoning from one or to one applies more especially in the case of fractions.It might be called the inductive method.Suppose we have the fraction £, to change to twentieths, the natural way would be something like this: There would #8 in one, in there would be + of 33 or fs, then if }\u2014/s, # would be three times that, or +4.This will be more likely to give the average boy an intelligent idea of what was done than the plan usually pursued which is expressed in the formula, ¢ Divide 20 by 4 and multiply the numerator by the quotient for the numerator, place 20 under it for the denominator.\u2019 This teaching would soon disappear if all children were like the young lady that Leibnitz undertook to teach.He complained that she always wanted to know the why of the why.We will pass on to multiplication, and in this as in all arithmethical processes, the inductive method is the best, although there is great difficulty in presenting it to the minds of the pupils as it should be presented.If we have a fraction to multiply by a whole number, the dfficulty is not so great in getting a class to comprehend it.But when you wish to get them to understand that you are multiplying one number by another, and that in all probability the product will be less than either, you feel as if you had better not go on; that you would like to preach the doctrine of knowledge by faith, to that class, and give up your belief in the efficacy of works» And you are right.It is one of the things that we teachers have not a clear enough conception of ourselves, and consequently, we fail in getting others to see what is but dimly realised by our own minds.But it will not make much difference if the pupils do not know the reason why the product is less that the numbers multiplied, if in your multiplying THE TEACHING OF FRACTIONS.511 you have made plain each of the steps in the way.When they know they are doing right and going in the right direction, they will not donbt the result.But you can tell them that it is quite natural ; that whole numbers and fractions are like two roads leading in opposite directions from the same point, one; and that the farther we get on by one road, the numbers become greater in value, and that they become less on the other; that if you multiply any two numbers on one side, the result is a number farther away from one than either, and what more natural than to expect the same on the other.We may take # X 4 and see what we can make of it.If we multiply # by 2 we have ;, therefore # multiplied by 2 will give us #; but we are not multiplying by 2 but by something that is less than two ; we are multiplying by thirds which are three times less than ones, so that, in multiplying by 2, we are multiplying by something that is three times too much, so that our result, £, is three times too great; therefore, we ought to have 4 of 3.Then 4 of $ is one of the three equal parts, into which 3 may be divided.If each fifth is divided into three equal parts, £ or the unit will be divided into five times three, or fifteen equal parts, and each of the parts will be a fifteenth, hence 4 of +, and } of § will be eight times +s or +, therefore, §x# is ¥5.This can be made quite clear I think to almost any capacity, by going over each step and not leaving it till it is understood before proceeding to the next.I leave this now, hoping that these weak suggestions may be of some use, and I regret that it was not taken up by some one abler and of more experience in the profession than myself.And I also much regret that a good professional training is not within the reach of all the young teachers of this Province.Isuppose the time is coming, though we shall hardly be able to wait for it.But, as teachers, we should never forget that we sway the destinies of the world; that, unknown and despised as we often are, from our hands and from our influence go forth 1hose hands that in the future shall wield the sceptres of the world, those whose influence must be felt for good or evil through the endless years that are yet to be.School Libraries in France\u2014The Academy tells us that School libraries are greatly on the increase in France.In 1865 the number was only 4,833, and in 1874, 16,548.There are now 25,913.This does not include the teachers\u2019 libraries, which number 2,348, with an aggregate of five hundred thousand volumes.How necessary such libraries are as a part of à well- equipped school, all those engaged in education will testify.EIRE EE RE RE 512 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.THE TRANSIT OF VENUS.By A.Jounson, M.D., LL.D.What is the transit of Venus?When will it happen?Shall we see it here?Why are astronomers so eager to witness it ?Will it be a grand sight?are some among the many questions that are asked by readers of the frequently recurring notices in the newspapers of the preparations for the approaching event.The following is an attempt to answer them} The transit or passage referred to is simply the passage of the planet Venus, which may now be seen shining so brightly in the western heavens shortly after sunset, directly between us and the sun, and those who imagine that there may be some magnificent phenomena connected with it will be very much disappointed.A black spot, less in diameter than the thirtieth part of the sun\u2019s diameter, will be seen even without a telescope, but through a smoked glass, to cross the lower part of the sun\u2019s disc in a direction slightly inclined upward.That is all* This will happen on December 6th next, and will be visible at Montreal if the weather be favorable; a matter which is very doubtful.The beginning of the passage (\u201c External contact at Ingress\u201d) wil] occur about nine minutes past nine a.m., Montreal time, but this will be hardly noticeable.The planet will be fully on the disc, and its edge will touch the sun\u2019s edge, or what is called \u201c Internal contact at Ingress \u201d will take place about 9h.30m., a.m.The passage will then continue across the disc until 2h.51m., p.m., when the edge of the planet will again just touch the edge of the sun (the planet being still fully on the sun\u2019s disc).This latter is called \u201c Internal contact at Egress.\u201d Venus continuing to move onwards will finally pass entirely off the san\u2019s disc (\u201c External contact at Egress\u201d) about 11 minutes past three p.m.The same phenomena will be visible at very nearly the same instant over a great part of Canada, occurring only from two to six seconds later at Ottawa, and a few seconds later still at Toronto, for example.But although at nearly the same time absolutely, the hours and minutes which denote the local time, will, of course, be different.The difference between * The contact at Ingress will occur af a point on the sun\u2019s disc making an angle from the North point of 145° towards the East.The contact at Egress will be at a point 114° from the North point towards the West. THE TRANSIT OF VENUS.513 Montreal and Toronto time, for example, being about 23 minutes, we shall have to subtract 23 minutes from the times given above in order to find the local times for Toronto.So for other points of Canada, the local times corresponding to the Montreal times given above will be the times for observing the four contacts mentioned.Greater precision of statement is unnecessary, as the actual astronomical data can hardly be relied on to give a higher degree of accuracy.The times given above can hardly be depended on within less than two minutes.The phenomena will be visiblg about the samé moment over a great part of the United States also; and some, if not all, the contacts may be seen, though not at the same absolute time, all over South America, the West Indies, in Great Britain and the West of Europe, Africa, Madagascar, part of Australia, New Zealand and the South Pacific Ocean.These places will be dotted over with the stations of small observing parties sent out by most of the civilized nations of the earth.The Imperial Parliament has made a preliminary grant of about $75,000 for expenses; the United States have given the same amount, and other nations are not behind them in liberality.The cost of the whole will come to a very large sum, and if we add to this the cost of the various similar expeditions in 1874, and before that in 1769 and 1761, the sum total cannot fail to impress the mind with a sense of the strong interest felt by civilized nations in the solution of the problem attacked; a problem which engaged men\u2019s attention more than two thousand years ago; a problem which is associated with the name of Pericles and Anaxagoras, Aristotle, Kepler, Flamsteed, Halley, and others of more recent times.From mere guesses at first, a nearer and nearer approach to an accurate answer to the question involved has been made, but a final satisfactory result has not yet been attained.What is the problem ?It may be described as a problem in sur.veying on the grandest scale.When a farmer or the owner of a large estate gets his land mapped out, and its size ascertained exactly, the advantages as well as the satisfaction arising from this are obvious.So, on a higher scale, are those of the Ordinance Survey of Great Britain or the like work for any other national territory.Rising still higher we come to those surveys which have had the mapping out of the whole earth and the determination of its size, for their object.Higher again, we consider the earth as one body in the solar system, which system is to be 514 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.accurately surveyed.Beyond this comes the step which leads us from the solar system itself to the dimensions of the visible universe.But with this our present subject has no immediate concern, although there is a close connection.Confining our attention to the solar system we may, from one point of view, compare our knowledge of it to that of an estate or territory of which a very accurate map has been made, so far as the relative positions and dimensions of all the parts are\u2019 concerned, but on which, from some overesight, the scale has been inaccurately drawn.Suppose, for example, it was uncertain whether a mile was represented by an inch or an inch and a quarter.(This, however, would be a great exaggeration of the uncertainty in the case of the solar system.) The result of this uncertainty, of course, would be that the actual distance in yards or miles between any two points, or the number of acres in any given area, could not be ascertained.Similarly, for the solar system we know the relative distances, the relative sizes, and even the relative weights of the planets and the sun ; but there is a good deal of uncertainty about the scale, and hence we cannot say positively what is the actual number of miles in any required distance.Our ignorance is, however, due not to any oversight, but to the difficuity of the measurements required to enable us to lay down the scale.Our unit of measurement is the distance from the sun to the earth, and this has never yet been determined in miles to the satisfaction of astronomers.How then can the distance of the sun be found by observing the passage of Venus across his face ?To explain this simply, it will be better to consider, not the distance of the sun, but the diameter of the sun in miles as the object of search.If either can be found, the other can be calculated from it by a simple proportion (which need not be here discussed), so that the above question becomes\u2014 \u201c How can we, by observing the passage of Venus across the sun\u2019s- disc, find the diameter of that disc in miles ?\u201d A general explanation is of course all that can be attempted here.Referring again to the illustration of the map, but letting the map now correspond, not to the solar system, but to the sun\u2019s disc only, it is obvious that if * we knew the actual distance in miles between any two points represented\u2019 on the map, we could readily find the distance in miles between any other two points, the map being supposed accurately drawn.For example, if we have a map of Montreal, carefully \u201d 515 THE TRANSIT OF VENUS.drawn, but without any scale attached, we could by knowing the distance between the two parallel streets, such as St.Catherine street and Dorchester street, tell the entire length of the city; because the proportion of this length to the other is given by the map.Similarly in the case of the sun\u2019s disc, if we knew (1) the distance in miles between any two parallel lines on its surface, and (2) the proportion of the whole diameter to this distance, we evidently can find the diameter.The problem thus put consists of two parts : \\ First, The distance of the two parallel lines in miles.Secondly, The proportion (or to speak accurately, the ratio) of the diameter to this distance.If we reverse the order of these, we may say that they correspond to ;\u2018 First, Drawing a map, but without knowing the scale.Secondly, Finding the scale.The map, however, we have to draw of the sun\u2019s disc is a mere outline.If we draw any circle to represent the sun\u2019s disc, we have merely to lay down on this circle a diameter and two other lines parallel to one another.But how are the lines on the sun\u2019s face to be selected ?This may be explained by another illustration.Go into a room with a gasalier hung from the ceiling, sit down on a chair, look at one of the glass globes, and notice what part of the opposite wall it hides from you, then sliding the chair in a straight path across the room observe that the part of the wall hidden from time to time during the motion will form a line on the wall.Next stand up, and moving along the same path on the floor, you will, of course, see that the glass globe hides a different line on the wall.It is clear that the distance apart of these two lines depends on the differences of the heights of the eye in the two cases and on the relative distances of the glass globe from the eye and the wall.Here the wall corresponds to the sun\u2019s face ; the glass globe corresponds to Venus, and would correspond better if it moved across between you and the wall, instead of compelling you to move in order to produce the same effect.The positions of the eye in the two cases correspond to the positions of two observers\u2014one, suppose, in the southern, the other in the northern hemisphere.Two such observers looking simultaneously at Venus would see her trace two different parallel lines across the sun\u2019s face by hiding the parts of them in succession.The distance PRE RRO ES 516 rt EDUCATIONAL RECORD.apart in miles of these two lines can be found without any great difficulty, because it depends, obviously, on the distance between the stations of the two observers, which is easily found, and on the known ratio between the distances of Venus from the sun and from the earth., Thus one part of the problem is solved, viz, that corresponding to measuring the distance between two parallel streets on the map of Montreal.The more difficult part, however, remains, viz., that which corresponds to finding the ratio on the map between the length of the whole city and the distance just mentioned.We have to find the ratio of the whole diameter of the sun to the distance between the two lines on its sui face that have been observed.The observations for this purpose are simply enough stated.The two observers already mentioned have only to notice the exact duration of the passage in each case.The two durations will plainly be different.The planet crosses noarer to the centre of the sun in one case than in the other.It will therefore have a longer path, a greater chord of the circle to travel, and therefore take longer to cross.Its rate of travelling from point to point in the heavens (i.e.the arc on the sky, it will pass over in a given number of hours) is known.Hence, if the observers note carefully how long it takes in the transit, the lengths of the two paraliel chords are known.But not in miles.They are only known thus far, that if we draw any circle on paper to represent the sun\u2019s dise we can lay down on it, on the same scale, the two chords, because we can measure the arc on the sky covered by the suv\u2019s diameter.Now, when these chords are drawn correctly to scale on the circle on paper, we may measure in inches their shortest distance apart, and by measuring also in inches the diameter of the circle, we have the ratio of the diameter to this distance, and this is the very number we wanted to find.We know now the number by which we must multiply the distance apart of the two chords in order to find the diameter; but this distance in miles can be found as already described, and thus the length in miles of the suu\u2019s diameter can be found.Hence the magnitude of the solar system can be determined.Thus our prob- Jem is solved.All that is required by theory is that the observers should notice the exact moment when Venus is first in contact with the sun\u2019s disc in going on, and last in contact in passing off.This method suggested by the illustrious Halley is simple enough.There ave, however, many practical difficulties.One may be INSPECTOR HUBBARD\u2019S REPORT.517 noticed here.It demands that the sky should be clear both at the beginning and end of the transit, and as a transit may last six hours the risk is much greater than if only a single observation were required.Considering this, De I'Isle in 1753, pointed out that it was possible, adopting the fundamental principle of Halley's method, to solve the problem by a single observation of a contact either at the beginning or eud, at places properly chosen whose longitudes could.be obta ned with great exactness.It is on this method, as regards the observation of contacts, that reliance must be placed in the coming transit.INSPECTOR HUBBARD'S REPORT.For the Year ending June, 1882.SHERBROOKE, August 21, 1882.To taE Hon.GEpfioN OUIMET, Superintendent of Public Instruction.SIR, I have the honor to submit my Annual Report, with the Statistical Tables, for the past scholastic year.: The Statistical Tables may require some brief explanation.I had prepared my Table ready for transmission, some months since, upon the old blanks, when I received new blanks, requiring some additional particulars, of which I had no record ; and I was, therefore, under the necessity of making my summer visits to the schools before I could be in a position to fill out the new classification required.With regard to this new classification, viz., as Catholic, Protestant, and Mixed, I beg to explain that, owing to the fact that my inquiries on these points were made after the close, in most cases, of the terms of schools for which other statistics had been taken, and that, in several instances, schools were closed, my Table is only approximately correct,\u2014 although I have done all in my power, under the circumstances, to make it as nearly correct as possible.I beg also to explain, as I have previously stated to you in correspondence, that the new Table seems to me to confuse some items which, in the old Table, were distinct and clear; as I see no way of distinguishing in the case of schools entered as ¢ Mizred,\u201d whether they are under the control of commissioners or of trustees, or are independent.+I have therefore sent both Tables, the old and the new ; the 518 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.former will show the items above referred to.I may remark that, as compared with previous years, the Table shows a fair general improvement in several particulars.There has been a slight gain, on the whole, over last year, in the number of schools in operation, and in the attendance.As regards School-buildings, there have been several casualities and also several improvements.Of the former, the loss by fire of the buildings of St.Francis College, Richmond, the Danville Academy, à school-house in Robinson, Bury, and one in Newport, may be especially noticed; the losses were partially covered by insurance.In the way of improvements, a large addition was made to the Coaticook Academy building, rendering it much more commodious and convenient for the purposes of a graded school.A model school-house has been built at Kingsey Falls, two new school-houses in Newport\u2014one to replace the one burned, and the other in a new district\u2014and one also in Dunham.A newmodel school-house is also in process of construction in Dunham, and two or three school-houses in other municipalities.Repairs, more or less extensive, have been made in a number of instances.In the case of the Danville Academy, it is proposed to erect a much better building than the one lost, to be so constructed as to provide well for a graded school.The other losses also will doubtless soon be replaced.There are now but few school-houses, comparatively, which have to be classed as \u201cbad\u201d or \u201cindifferent,\u201d though a larger number can be ranked as only \u201c middling\u201d.This fact will appear in the bulletins sent of the several schools.There has certainly been improvement during the year, in regard to school buildings.As to School Appliances, I cannot report very marked advancement.In a few instances, something has been done in the way of furnishing maps, &c.; but there is still very great room for im- provement\u2014the lack is almost universal.As regards Teachers, there has been unusual scarcity of those legally qualified.This has been owing, in part, at least, to the revival of « better times\u201d in other departments of labor, and the tardiness of School Boards, generally, in increasing wages offered.In several cases, schools have remained closed for part of the year for want of teachers; and in more cases than usual, teachers not holding diplomas have been temporarily employed.There has been a slight general increase in the wages paid, INSPECTOR HUBBARD\u2019S REPORT.519 though not in.proportion to the scarcity; and municipalities have not generally retained the stoppages\u201d required by the Pension Act, thus really adding two per cent.to the salaries.Owing to the scarcity, Catholic teachers have been employed in quite a number of Protestant schools.The proportion of male teachers has been unusually small.Teachers generally have shown fair efficiency, and I have seldom seen evidences of incompetency or of marked inefficiency.More frequently I have occasion to call the attention of teachers to want of thorough instruction or of systematic arrangement.In the matter of Text-books, uniformity is gradually prevailing ; though in several sections, unauthorized books are still used ; and in some cases, the gradual introduction of authorized books causes, for the time, more confusion.The teachers too frequently use their influence against the use of authorized books.In the matter of Finances, no special troubles have arisen.As the times have been better, collections have generally been easier; and, as a rule, the teachers are paid with promptness.This ought to be true in every instance; I am confident that the exceptions this year have been fewer than usual.Since my last report, I have visited all the schools under my supervision, which were in operation at the time, twice.During the year, however, I visited all once; and all twice, excepting six in summer, and fifteen in winter.The winter was unusually unfavorable for travelling; and many of my visits during that season were made with much difficulty and hardship.So large is the number of schools which I have to visit, that I find it impossible to avoid occasional omissions.I am, however, careful in all cases to go to those schools on my next tour.I also find it impracticable, in general, to give notice of intended visits; and I may venture to suggest a doubt as to the advisability of such notice, when practicable.A few schools which I have, up to the present time, visited and reported, have become so largely Catholic in their attendance, that it would probably be better that they should be visited by the Catholic Inspector.I may mention No.16 of Stanstead, County of Stanstead, Nos.13 and 14 of Ascot, County of Sherbrooke, and No.3 of Cleveland, County of Richmond.As I have given the details of each municipality in my Statistical Table, and in the Bulletins of visits, it seems unnecessary to 520 - THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.recapitulate in this report.I shall endeavor to farnish promptly any additional information which you may require.I have the honor to be, Sir, Your obedient servant, H.HoBBarp, Inspector of Schools.INSPECTOR THOMPSON\u2019S REPORT.For the Year ending June, 1882.LEEDs, 11TH JULY, 1882.To THE HoN.SUPERINTENDENT OF EDUCATION.Str \u2014À have the honor to forward the enclosed statistical table with my annual report for the year ending June 30th, 1882.No great changes have taken place, but I am happy in being able to state that much progress has been made in the majority of the schools in this district during the year.There were in operation this year seventy-nine schools, attended by two thousand, one hundred and fifteen pupils; one thousand and ninety-one boys, and one thousand and twenty-four girls.The average attendance during the winter months was one thousand, six hundred and five.Eighteen of these schools were kept open only part of the year.These seventy-nine schools are distributed over my district as follows : forty-six are in the County of Megantic, twenty-five in C rmpton, three in Wolfe, three in Dor- chester, and two in the County of Beauce.Generally speaking, the teachers have been diligent in the discharge of their duties, and have in most of the schools done good work.There is no doubt that the staff of elementary teachers in this district has very much improved during the last few years.A large number of them have been trained at the Inverness Academy, which has been ably conducted for the last four years.A good number are pupils of the McGill Normal School.This improvement is largely owing to the amended regulations ror granting diplomas by the different Boards of Examiners.: I should wish to see yet another reform in these regulations, and one which was recommended by the Convention of Protestant teachers lately held in Sherbrooke: That the written papers of INSPECTOR THOMPSON\u2019S REPORT.521 the different candidates should be examined and decided upon by a Central Committee.There are in this district eleven male teachers, and sixty-eight female teachers., They are all with only one exception provided with diplomas.| The School-hquses in this district are being considerably improved.An excéllent one has been lately built in the municipality of Inverness.The School Commissioners of this Municipality have also furnished their schools with the improved patent seats.I trust that other Boards of School Commissioners will follow their example before the expiration of another year.I have still to regret that the element&ry schools are not properly supplied with maps, without which Geography cannot be successfully taught.There are four superior schools in this district, viz., ti Model Schools of Leeds Village.Maple Grove, and Scotstown®and the Academy at Inverness.I did not consider is necessary to examine these schools this year, as they have been inspected and reported by Professor Weir, Inspector of Model Schools and Academies.The best elementary-schools in this district are those taught by Mr.George Murray and Miss Catherine McKillop, of Inverness, Mr.John Parker, and Misses Mary Kerr, Margaret Allan, and Mary Ann Thompson, of Leeds, Miss Margaret Ross, of Lingwick, and Miss Anna M.Cameron, Stornoway.By special request I visited the Protestant School on the Ken- nebec Road, Municipality of Liniére, on the 14th of January last.{ have already sent you a report of this School.I have also been authorized to inspect, once a year, the Protestant Schools of the County of Lotbinière.I will make this inspection as soon as possible and report to you.By refgrring to the annexed statement you will see that, although there were more schools in operation this year than last, the average attendance has diminished.This was chiefly owing to the prevalence of epidemic disease in the Townships of Leeds and Inverness, which necessitated the closing of several of the schools for some time.I am glad to see that the number of pupils studying Mental Arithmetic this year has increased to nine hundred and ninety-three, being two hundred and thirty-three over the number given last year.The number studying drawirg has decreased since last year by one hundred and two.Very few of 522 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.the teachers care to teach drawing in their schools, they having never learned it themselves.STATEMENT OF THE NUMBER OF PUPILS STUDYING EACH BRANCH OF EDUCATION As COMPARED WITH LAST YEAR.1880-81 1881-82 Increase.Decrease.Number of Municipalities.20 20 \u201c Schools in operation.TT 79 2 u Pupils.2111 2115 4 Average attendance.| 1649 1605 44 Number of pupils writing.| 1373 1417 54 \u201c Learning Arithmetic.| 1305 1348 43 6 « Mental Arithmetic, 760 |f 993 233 « « Book-keeping .173 110 63 « « Mathematics .62 81 | 19 « « Mnsuration.15 36 | 21 4 « English Grammar] 668 686 18 « \u201c French.54 70 16 « \u201c Analysis.144 172 28 u « Composition.385 378 7 \u201c « Geography.\u2026.806 816 10 « « History.702 642 60 « « Drawing .e 145 43 102 Number of Dissentient Schools.10 8 2 u Pupils.«.235 209 26 Average Attendance.176 140 36 Hoping that the foregoing, along with the statistical report and bulletins of inspection will be sufficient to give a good idea of the state of the schools in this district, I have the honor to be, &ec., Wu.THOMPSON, Inspector of Schools.CIRCULAR TO THE PROTESTANT INSPECTORS.DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.#° QUEBEC, 17th Nov., 1882.Sir,\u2014In order to facilitate the work of this Department and to promote the interests of Education in your district-of Inspection.I have the honor to request that you will observe the following instructions concerning the work of Inspection in your District : I.\u2014Acr Vier.43-44, Caapr.XXII.To establish a Pension and Benevolent Fund in favor of officers CIRCULAR TO PROTESTANT INSPECTORS.523 of Primary Instruction \u2014Sections 17 and 18 of this Act provide as follows: \u201c17.The salary of directors or teachers employed in schools subsidized by Government or school municipalities shall be estimated and determined by the school inspector of the division to which such directors or teachers belong, and this to the satisfaction of the Superintendent, who may order an enquiry for such purpose, in accordance with the law respecting education.\u201d \u201c18.In case lodging, board and fuel, or any of thn, are included in the amount of a teacher's salary, the amount representing such lodging, board or fuel shall be estimated and established to the satisfaction of the Superintendent, by the school inspector of the division to which the teacher belongs.\u201d You are therefore requested to report upon the salaries of teachers in the different municipalities in your district of Inspection, in accordance with forms to be provided by this Department, taking care to insert no item in the report which does not properly form part of the teacher's salary.These reports are to be checked and countersigned by the Secretary-Treasurer of the municipality.In districts where the school year is divided into a Winter term and a Summer term, you will call the former the first six months and the latter the second six months of the year.This report is to be made semi-annually, II.\u2014TuE EpvucaTioNAL RECORD.Great difficulty has been experienced in providing the Elementary teachers with the monthly issues of this Journal.In order to facilitate the distribution, you are requested to prepare, at your earliest convenience, a report giving the number and local name of each school district in the several municipalities of your district of Inspection and presenting the school districts of each municipality arranged in groups under their respective Post Offices.The Post Office at the head of any group will thus be the Post- Office address of each school of that group.You will forward this report to the Department not later than the first week in J anuary next.If your report is not then complete, a supplementary report can be added, when the information necessary to complete it has been obtained.| 36 524 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.III.\u2014 BULLETINS or INSPECTION.(A).Instead of \u201cname or number of School,\u201d read \u201c name and number,\u201d if both exist.(B).After Name, Diploma and Salary, &c., report the salary as follows : 1.When the teacher is engaged by the year, place salary over the number of months teaching, thus *§° signifies $300 for 9 months; e 2.When a teacher is engaged by the month and paid in cash, give the salary multiplied by the number of months, thus: ($16 X 4) signifies $16 per month for four months; 3.When 2 teacher is provided with a permanent boarding place, in addition to the cash payment add B for board, thus: ($10 X 4) + B,, signifies ten dollars per month for four months and board.4.If a teacher is required to \u201c board round,\u201d add B.R.thus: (10 X 4) + B.R.signifies $10 per month for four months and \u201c board round.\u201d : (C).Under \u201c remarks \u201d state whether the EnucATIONAL RECORD is received by the teacher or not, inserting \u201c RECORD received \u201d or \u201c RECORD not received,\u201d as the case may be.TV.\u2014CLASSIFICATION OF MUNICIPALITIES.In your annual reports to this Department classify the School municipalities of your Inspectoral District under the following Heads :¢ 1, excellent; 2, good; 3, middling; 4, bad ; 5, very bad ; arranging the municipalities of each class in order of merit.The classification is to be based upon the following points : 1.The manner in which School Commissioners and Secretary- Treasurer discharge their duties.2.The condition of School Houses.School Apparatus.The use of authorized text books.The efficiency of the teachers.The salaries of teachers and method of payment.V.\u2014\"TEACHERS\u2019 MEETINGS.As the great majority of the teachers of the Elementary Schools of this Province have received no professional training, every CIRCULAR TO SCHOOL INSPECTORS, 525 effort should be made by the Inspector to bring before the notice of the teachers of his district the best methods of conducting the work of the Elementary Schools.You are therefore requested to hold, at least once a year, a meeting of teachers in each County, for the purpose of considering the difficulties, defects and desirable improvements of the schools of the County, and also for the purpose of illustrating, by means of Papers, Model Lessons, &c., the best methods of teaching and organizing Elementary Schools.A Public Meeting, with Addresses upon Educational Topics, would form a very valuable closing session for such meetings.If found desirable, the teachers of two adjacent Counties may, on application to the Superintendent, be united for the purposes of such meetings.VI\u2014DRAWING.I have, on former occasions, directed your attention to the teaching of Drawing as part of our Elementary School Course, and I am glad to be able to note that much progress has been made in the introduction of this subject into the Etementary Schools of this Province.There remains, however, much to be desired in this connection.I request, therefore, that you will strongly urge upon your teachers the introduction of this subject into the Elementary Schools, pointing out\u2014 (a.) That the subject of Drawing is receiving more and more attention from Educationists.(b.) That a teacher without special training in Drawing, can conduct a class of young children in this subject very successfally with the assistance of Walter Smith\u2019s Manual.(c.) That the youngest pupils in the school should begin Drawing Exercises.- (d.) That for the first two or three years pupils can be profitably employed in copying, with Slate and Pencil, figures placed upon the Black-board by the teacher.GÉDÉON OUIMET, Superintendent. STATEMENT OF REVENUE and Expenditure of the Protestant Board of School Commissioners, Montreal, from 1st July, 1881, to 30th June, 1882.REVENUE.EXPENDITURE.\u2018To Balance on hand as per last year\u2019s statement $82 35 By Maintenance of Schools for 1881-82, as per 06 55% * City School Tax for 1881 0 abstract annexed $721 505 % Less amt.advanced as per preceding statement.\u201cPrize Books and Medals To City School Tax on account for 1882 By Secretary Superintendent\u2019s Salary \u201c* Government Grant, \u2018\u201c Common Sehool Fund * \u2018* Accountant\u2019s Salary overn\u2019t Grant, * Superior Education Fund \u201c Office Expenses.\u2026.\u2026\u2026.\u2026.srsac0ce .\u201c for education of 30 free pupils \u201d Î : Ordinary Fees, High Sehool of Montreal.* Miscellaneous Charges .Ordinary Fees, High School for Girls - \u2018Printing.Ordinary Fees, Preparatory High School.\u201c Advertising é COMMON SCHOOL FEES- \u2018 TInterest_on $300,000 Bonds at 6 per cent.18.000 2 \u201c Point St.Charles School ces \u201c Sinking Fund for Redemption of Bonds , \u201c Mill Street School \u2026\u2026.cers \u201c Interest ond Land and Mortgage and Over- 9.648 63 * Royal Arthur School.\u2026.drafts at Bank '864 15 < Ann Street School.\u2018 Pension Fund, amount deducted from Grants ** Senior School ce By Land on Sherbrooke & St.Hypolite Streets.* Ontario Street School \u201c* Land at Point St.Charles \u201c British and Canadian School! 3,650 98 a \u2018 Sherbrooke Street School By New High School serene tee i 939 % « Dorchester Street School 514 50 *\u201c Cash in Hand \u2019 * Panet Street School.\u2018 *10,528 05 Pension Fund, amount deducted from salarie 615 50 \u201c Bill Payable 4,249 12 Total advances Molsons Bank 17,5 Amount advanced as per preceding statement.11,549 18 oe # qg00EY TVNOILVOQCH HHL To additional advances during present school 5,999 41 - $110,327 76 .- ai oar $110,327 76 * Including the Fees of June, 1881.*Tncluding the Salaries for June of the preceding year.Audited and found correct.COURT, MACINTOSH & HYDE, Auditors. pi ABSTRACT SHOWING COST OF MAINTENANCE OF SCHOOLS FOR 1881-82.be .gE \u20ac 0 £a 2 2 B \u201c + BR = = : 5 ë 5 2 3 3 |=28;| E + = < Do a = mn E+ a E = a = a 2 = a a oO fé À og [73 wn os < High School of Montreal.oiieeerrieacear virions SU $13,111 10 $109 08 155 59 $329 77 $209 86 $795 16 $14,710 56 Girls\u2019 High School :-.\u2026.\u2026.00000sera nana nent 1015 ed rene n 00e 7,025 47 59 97 177 23 329 T7 190 79 795 1 8,578 40 Preparatory High School.fete ee Eee 3,552 46 58 10 38 95 92 02 55 85 190 5 3,987 90 Point St.Charles Sehool.\u2026.\u2026.\u2026.\u2026erer-ensrensias anna sue nn 00 00 3,588 24 32 82 80 57 373 34 59 82 292 22 4,427 01 Mill Street School.\u2026.1\u2026ucseresscascen0e 1 sas a cu 0000 412 50 115 12 89 34 95 80 3 80 466 Royal Arthur School.5,288 61 62 34 129 52 481 11 109 61 406 15 6,477 24 \u2018Ann Street School.\u2026\u2026+\u2026+.\u2026.A 5,607 93 59 82 91 66 538 70 223 86 271 39 6,792 86 Senior School.\u2026.\u2026+\u2026.2 Mie ss dans na 0000 Breese aren 3,752 34 20 45 48 60 141 41 18 99 232 11 4,213 90 .British and Canadian School.Lans at00 1000000000 4,870 53 44 10 71 93 413 12 64 67 166 08 5,630 43 Sherbrooke Street Sehool.\u2026.ssesc ee nee 0 5,983 73 71 02 115 01 492 56 102 20 210 47 6,974 99 Dorchester Street SEhool .o viv cases nca000 2,169 40 18 72 2 50 129 24 8 74 56 95 2,385 55 Ontario Street Sehool .\u2026.\u2026.\u202610020c ete e 000 et0 00 1,263 29 5 83 14 44 123 08 71 48 87 90 1,565 72 Panet Street School-.\u2026.+.ssarau nana nes sen n 0000 3,832 13 46 16 65 51 475 55 91 33 166 33 4,677 01 Model School, Stanley Street.\u2026.0\u2026a\u2026ronceccssase nano me: 360 00 360 00 Hebrew Sehool.\u2026.\u2026.\u2026.00.00000 0 sen a nes ana sens esta canne 858 89 858 89 461,766 52*| $588 76 $1,004 40 $3,954 62 $1,208 00 $3,674 25 $72,106 55 * Includes salaries for June of the preceding year.Audited and found correct.COURT, MACINTOSH & HYDE, AUDITORS, To the Chairman and Members of the Protestant Board of School Commissioners.HENRY EVANS, ACCOUNTANT.MONTREAL, 26th September, 1882.GRNTLEMEN,\u2014We have now to report the completion of the Audit of the books of your Board for the year ending 30th June, 1882.The disbursements as per Cash Book have been checked with the vouchers and found correct.The receipts have been verified by the City Treasurer's statement of School Taxes, the Secretary- Bank Book.The journalizing of the Cash and posting of same into the Ledger have been checked and found correct.and Ledger have also been checked.Loe d Expenditure shows a correct abstract of the receipts and disbursements for the year.The Balance Sheet The enclosed statement of Revenue an herewith shows the position of your Board on 30th June, 1882, as per your Books.We are, gentlemen, yours obediently, Superintendent\u2019s certificate of School Fees and the The additions of the Cash Book, Journal COURT, MACINTOSH & HYDE, Accountants.SATEVE Las TTE NCE IN THE HIGH, SENIOR, COMMON AND SUBSIDIZED SCHOOLS, under the control of the Protestant Board of STATISTIOS OF À NDA Sehool Commissioners of Montreal, for the year ending June 30th, 1882.NAME oF SCHOOL, Number of School Days.Average Enrolment.Total Days of Attendance.Per cent.of Daily Attendance.No.of times ate.High School of Montreal, including Preparatory High School for Girls Senior School Common Schools Hebrew School St.George\u2019s School Total, 1881-82 Total, 1880-81 320-1 164 1326 2,825'9 119 1149 mt 13 DARUNN D 3,676'5 3,610 8 The last column shows the number of times each pupil has been late during the year on the average.STATEMENT OF NUMBER OF TEACHERS AND PUPILS IN ATTENDANCE AND COST OF Average Average Number of NAME OF SCHOOL.Teachers.Pupils.Number of 320-2 164- High School for Boys à High School for Girls : Total cost of Maintenance.Fees.633,341 643,4574 EACH PUPIL IN EACH SCHOOL.Net Cost.Net cost per pupil 1881-82.Net cost per pupil 1880-81.$16,963 72 7,925 98 $11,337 65 5,506 91 $5,616 07 2,419 07 $17 54 14 75 $16 40 12 69 132-6 Senior School 261-3 Point St.Charles School.EN Mill Street School : Royal Arthur School .\u2026.Pesrrs cas ca acces Ann Street School : British and Canadian School.Ontario Street School vo vere Sherbrooke Street School Dorchester Street School Panet Street School vevecivere evnees .3,793 57 1,425 50 774 20 821 30 17 33 12 86 4 26 8 89 11 67 972 8 68 8 22 10 48 11 97 32 11 Total for Common Schools including Senior School.40,049 26 9,581 35 30,467 91 10 30 Subsidized Schools .1,128 89 1,128 89 4 66 Total for all Schools Total for all Schools, 1880-81 66,057 85 69,666 40 26,425 91 27,217 70 39,631 94 42,448 70 10 76 11 76 \u201cŒHODHA TVNOILVONCE FHL ÉDUCATION IN SAXONY.EDUCATION IN SAXONY, A recent number (No.29, July 22nd) of the Philologische Wochenschrift reproduces an important missive of the Saxon Education Department, calling upon the rectors of the Gymnasia, or grammar schools, to meet and consider the grave dangers which have arisen from the too rapid development of new ideas and the so-called reforms in higher education.The minister considers that the ever-growing criticism of classical studies as unpractical, and the desire to replace them by something more obviously useful, arise from the mismanagement of these studies; first, by over-burdening the pupils; secondly, by over-specializ- ing the instruction.It is noted that with the rapid increase in numbers of the Gymnasia, and the necessary employment of many young and inexperienced teachers, the home tasks and preparation expected from children, are such as to over-burden their brains, and leave no time for wholesome exercise or recreation.This is the case not only in Saxony, but all over Germany; where the pernicious law which shortens military service to those who successfully pass an examination is in force.Every stupid boy is killing himself that he may escape the three years\u2019 service as a private (or whatever the amount is).The manifesto does not, however, touch on the evil of over multiplying subjects, which in England is no doubt more prevalent and poisonous than the over-multiplying of the hours of work ; for even where the former does not, as a natural result, produce the latter, it does great and irreparable mischief.I need only point to the two hours a week in French or German at many schools, which fatigue the boy without any return save that of deceiving his parents, and, if he is very silly, even himself.The second evil noted is the over-specializing of classical teaching, especially in the direction of theoretical syntax.The researches into the constructions of special authors, and the speculations on the logical use of particles, which have so deeply infected the modern grammars, encourage teachers of what they call at Cambridge \u201cpure classics\u201d (?) to set exercises which afford a mere series of syntactical problems, and no practice in turning the natural idioms of one tongue into those of another.The minute of the minister insists that no learning off by heart of syntactical rules will ever teach a pupil the free and actual \u201cRE 530 THE EDUCATIONAL RÉCOËD.handling of a foreign tongue.The present school is described as teaching \u201can abstract and subtle dogmatik,\u201d which destroys all the pupil's enjoyment in the great literature of the past.But while the German state critic féars that each section of classical study may be driven too far by the specialists, and so rendered too minute and various for any ordinary pupil's comprehension, the danger of history or archaeology being neglected does not strike him as pressing.In our schools we must rather watch that the exclusive teaching of grammar and composition does not extrude altogether the human and practical, nay even the esthetic, side of classics ; for we have frequent specimens of men who are formally elegant scholars, and who shudder at a false tense or a false quantity, but are at the same time mere children in questions of history or literary criticism, and borrow their opinions from the nearest authority.The whole document is of great importance, and the meeting by the rectors to discuss it will no doubt be of the highest interest.J.P.MAHAFFY, in the Atheneum.RECENT EVENTS.The Faculty of Applied Science of McGill University.\u2014 About ten years have elapsed since the organization of the Engineering School of McGill University as a Faculty of Applied Science.In that time it has steadily advanced in its number of students and means and appliances of education.At the recent meeting of the Corporation of the University it was announced that the number of students had reached fifty-one.Of these the greater part are in the course of Civil Engineering, but the proportion taking the courses of Mining Engineering, Mechanical Engineering and Practical Chemistry is increasing.In all these professions the graduates of the school appear readily to find employment, and several of them have risen to important positions.Protestant Board of School Commissioners.\u2014The monthly meeting of this Board was held on the 16th November.The reports of school attendance for October were laid on the table, showing a total enrolment of 3,631 pupils, of whom 3,369, nearly 93 per cent., were in daily attendance.Mr.G.W.Stephens, M.P.P.was requested to preside at the Teachers\u2019 Conference to be held on the 7th of December.A draft of amended regulations and of limit- tables dividing the common school curriculum into seven years instead of six, was submitted by a Committee.The scheme was approved in principle, but detailed examinations were deferred MISCELLANEOUS.531 until the resources of the Board become more nearly adequate to its work.To secure, if possible, some temporary relief, the Rev.Dr.Norman was requested to wait upon the Finance Committee of the City Council, and ask a slight change in the mode of paying the School-tax over to the School Boards.The Rev.Canon Norman and the Rev.Dr.Jenkins were instructed to wait on the Hon.J.A.Mousseau, and to explain to him the circumstances and the needs of Protestant education in Montreal.McGill University Gazette\u2014We are glad to see that the students of McGill University have started the Gazette again.Its reissue is a sign that the alma mater has taken a new lease of life.The editorial committee is composed of two members from each of the faculties, under the presidency of Professor Moyse.The first number is well up to the mark and contains, among other contributions from outsiders, an humorous paper from the pen of one of our lady teachers, with whose insinuating style our own readers are by this time probably familiar.We can only add that we wish the University Gazette plenty of subscribers and\u2014contributors.MISCELLANEOUS.Oxford and Cambridge\u2014 The two Universities are unlike anything else in the world, and they are very like one another.Nevertheless they have their points of dissimilarity.One such point, in particular, cannot fail to arrest notice.Both Universities have told powerfully upon the mind and life of the nation.But the University of Oxford, of which I am a member, and to which I am deeply and affectionately attached, has produced great men, indeed, but has above all been the source or the centre of great \u2018movements.We will not now go back to the middle ages ; we will keep within the range of which is called modern history.Within this range, we have the great movements of Royalism, Wesleyan- ism, Tractarianism, Ritualism, all of them having their source or their centre in Oxford.You (at Cambridge) have nothing of the kind.The movement taking its name from Charles Simeon, is far, far less considerable, than the movement taking its name from John Wesley.The movement attempted by the Latitude men in the seventeenth century, is next to nothing as a movement; the men are everything.And this is, in truth, your great, your surpassing, distinction: not your movements, but your men.From Bacon to Byron, what a splendid roll of great names you can point to! We, at Oxford, can show nothing equal to it.Yours is the University, not of great movements, but of great men.Our experience at Oxford disposes us, perhaps, to treat movements, whether our own, or extraneous movements sich as the present movement for revolutionizing education, with too much respect. 532 THB EDUCATIONAL RECORD.That disposition finds a corrective here.Masses make movements, individuals explode them.On mankind, in the mass, a movement, once started, is apt to impose itself by routine; it is through the insight, the independence, the self-confidence of powerful single minds that its yoke is shaken off.\u2014 Matthew Arnold, Professor Seeley on History.\u2014Considering man as in the presence of a great Necessity, theology inquires how his ideals may be conformed to it.The Bible is a great history of the dealings of a certain human group with this Necessity, of their attempts to obey it, of their fits of disobedience and forgetfulness.This is the proper historical point of view, which must be taken up in modern history also if it is to become a source of serious instruction, to have its canonical books, or to cease to be the Babel of national brawls and mendacious party recriminations that it is.The remedy lies in regarding history with more reverence, as a main- part of religion ; only thus can we save it from the unprincipled perversion it now suffers at the hands of party-writers ; the remedy lies, too, in seeing, as the Hebrews did, not only the struggles of men in history but the decrees of a superior Necessity, for history is a source of wild delusions, of the mania of admiration in reactionaries, and of the frenzy of hatred in revolutionists, to those who see in it only human free-will.\u2014 Natural Religion.The Endowment of Research at Edinburgh.\u2014\u2018 Endowment of Research,\u201d though still ignored at the older Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, is being recognised elsewhere.Owens College, by the munificence of an anonymous benefactor, led the way last year; and now the University of Edinburgh is enabled to follow, thanks to another private benefactor, who likewise desires to conceal his name.Five fellowships of £100 each, tenable for one year, but renewable for one or more further years, will be awarded at Edinburgh in October.There will be no examination, but the Senatus Academicus will consider only the qualifications and circumstances of the candidates.The fellowships are intended for persons having attained some proficiency in, and who are desirous to prosecute, unprofessional study and research in one of the following subjects :\u2014Mathematics (pure or applied), or experimental, physics, chemistry, biology, mental philosophy, history, or the history of literature.They are open to any graduate of a Scottish university not being more than thirty years of age at the date of application, and provided that he be not an assistant to any professor, or an examiner in any department.Hach fellow will be expected to reside in Edinburgh during the winter and summer seasons of the university (1382-83) to prosecute his particular branch of study under the advice of the professor to whose department the subject belongs; and within a year after his election to give evi- _ eu AEA Ca MI HACE a] MISCELLANEOUS.533 dence of his progress by the preparation of a thesis, the completion of a research, the delivery of a lecture, or in some other way approved by the Senatus Academicus.\u2014 The Academy.Smattering and Grounding.\u2014It is bard to find anything new in speeches on education, but there is one passage in Sir John Lubbock\u2019s address at Bedford, containing a thought which, if not absolutely new, is yet sufficiently unrecognized to need a good deal of preaching.Speaking of the common objection to boys learning a variety of subjects, he said that he thought it arose \u201c from a confusion between a smattering and a grounding in a subject.\u201d The distinction is one which greatly needs being insisted upon.The business of education, one is often told, is not to fill the mind but to train it.True enough; but training ought at the same time to give the boy the means of filling it himself, to open the doors, as it were, of various branches of study.In the treasure-house of knowledge there are many chambers, and each has its separate key in addition to that which opens the front door.Education should give us possession of as many of these keys as possible.How many each man can be safely entrusted with, it may not be easy to decide, but it is wrong to lay down too strict rules to limit the number.To learn the rudiments of several sciences, though it may be rashly denounced as \u201c smattez- ing,\u201d is a very different thing from that really injurious superficiality which consists in acquiring the common places of all.\u2014 Pall Mall Budget.Grammatical Laws.\u2014Words, or rather the arrangement of words, are certainly subject to laws, but the great difficulty of grammar is that these laws are so indefinite.And, instead of calling the rules of grammar natur#l laws, we should say that they are from first to last perfectly arbitrary, the rather clumsy invention of grammarians who are trying to reduce to rule a state of things which they do not quite know how to account for.If there be any analogy between grammar and any kind of law, it must be Common Law, which translates use and custom into legal right.If the laws of nature are infringed, we can confidently assert that some definite result will follow; but, if an ignorant person in speaking or writing sets all the laws of grammar at defiance, he yet succeeds in making himself perfectly intelligible to the person he is speaking or writing to.In short, the so- called laws of grammar are, strictly speaking, very much on a par with the laws of politeness; they can only tell us what are the modes of expression that will pass.muster among educated people in the present day.For grammarians ought to remember @ that many phrases which were accepted in polite society a century ago, would now be scouted as ungrammatical.Again, there is no reason, still less law, why one word should become obsolete and another should hold its ground.Why, for instance, should 534 THE EDUCATIONAL RECORD.the word \u201cto-day\u201d be good grammar, and the equivalent expressions *\u2018 to-week,\u201d \u201c tr-month,\u201d \u201c to-year,\u201d still current in some parts of the country, be bad grammar?And numberless similar examples could be cited.'The fact is that when once the ear is accustomed to a certain turn of words, any deviation from that jars upon it and is pronounced as incorrect.The phrase that has once found its way into the every-day talk of well-bred persons next finds its way into grammars, and grammarians have to invent some new rule to account for it.\u2014Saturday Review.The \u201c Scott\u201d Question in Liverpool.\u2014There has been an animated discussion at the Liverpool School Board as to whether novels should be admitted as part of the school course, and by a majority of one this question has been decided in the affirmative.The battle was fought over \u201cIvanhoe,\u201d and the children of Liverpool will at once make acquaintance with Rebecca and Rowena, and probably Thackeray\u2019s version with Mr.Doyle\u2019s illustrations will be read in small doses by the lower classes.The caricatures and misrepresentation in Ivanhoe\u201d of the Catholic Church, the distaste for more serious and interesting work produced by novel reading, were weighed in the balance against the recommendation of her Majesty's Inspector, the elevating effect of novel reading on the mind, and the suggestion that good novels might keep the children from the piratical penny novelette, and were found wanting.\u2014 Pall Mall Budget.SCIENTIFIC JOTTINGS.Two scientific men of note have recently passed away\u2014Prof.Francis Mait- land Balfour, of the University of Cambridge, and Dr.George Dickie, Professor of Botany, of the University ot Aberdeen.Prof.Balfour lost his life whilst attempting the passage of the Aiguille Blanche de Penteret, one of the buttresses of Mont Blanc, in Switzerland.He was quite a young man, but yet bad done a large amount of valuable original work, and was the author of a valuable work on the «Development of the FElasmobranch Fishes.\u201d He is best known, however, by his work on \u201c Cumparative Embryology.\u201d Dr.Dickie was the author of numerous papers and several books on botanical subjects, and was especially interested in the study of the Algæ.Certain members of the British Association for the Advancement of Science have been putting on record their opinion that there is no conflict between science and religion.A manifesto drawn up by members of the Association has received no fewer than six hundred and seventeen signatures of scientists, \u201cmany of whom are investigators of the highest eminence,\u201d and \u201calmost all are fellows or members of learncd societies.\u201d «The manifesto,\u201d says an exchange, « declares positively that to cast doubt upon the revelation of Scrip, ture is a perversion of science and that the testimony for God in Nature and that which is given in the Bible may diifer, but do not contradict one an- 8 other,\u201d "]